Autonomic Nervous Systemsym Path Etic Division
ANS regulates automatic functions of the human body. Changes in heart rate, pupil dilation, digestive functions, and blood flow to the kidney are all controlled by the ANS. There is some possibility of conscious regulation of parts of the ANS, but, for the most part, it functions without conscious control. There are two divisions of the autonomic nervous system. The resting state of the body is controlled by the parasympathetic division. Digestion, kidney filtration, erection of the clitoris,...
Middle Ear
The middle ear consists of the tympanic cavity and structures in that cavity. It is connected to the nasopharynx by the auditory tube. This tube allows for equalization of pressure from the middle ear and the external environment. The three ear ossicles transfer sound from the tympanic membrane to the oval window of the inner ear. Label the three ear ossicles, the malleus, incus, and stapes, and color each one a different color. Color the oval window where the stapes connects and use lighter...
Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are positioned superior to the kidneys and are divided into the adrenal cortex and the medulla. The cortex has three layers. The most superficial layer is the zona glomerulosa, which is deep to the adrenal capsule and responsible for the secretion of mineralocorticoid hormones. The next layer is the zona fasciculata which mainly secretes glucocorticoids, hormones responsible for the breakdown of proteins and lipids and the synthesis of glucose. The zona reticularis is the...
Inner Ear
The inner ear consists of the cochlea, the vestibule, and the semicircular ducts. In Latin, the name cochlea means snail shell and it spirals like a snail. Its function is to translate the mechanical vibrations of sound into nerve impulses. The cochlea has an oval window that attaches to the stapes and a round window that allows for changes in pressure to occur in the inner ear. Label the cochlea and color it in. The vestibule has two parts, the utricle and the saccule. These are involved in...
Lymph Nodes
Lymph nodes are found typically in clusters along the route that lymphatics take as lymph is returned to the cardiovascular system. Afferent lymphatics bring lymph to the node and efferent lymphatics Lymph nodes consist of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex produces lymphocytes and the medulla has medullary cords that have clusters of lymph cells that cleanse the lymph passing through the nodes. Label the lymphatics and parts of the lymph node and color them in. Answer Key a....
Teeth
The tooth has three general regions the crown, the neck, and the root. The crown is the part of the tooth that erupts from the gums into the oral cavity. The neck is normally at the level of the gingiva and the root is imbedded into the bone. The tooth fits into the alveolar socket of the maxilla or the mandible and is held there by the periodontal ligaments. The internal anatomy of the tooth reveals the hard enamel which is an extremely dense material that resists wear and abrasion. Deep to...
Parathyroid Glands
There are typically four glands on the posterior of the thyroid gland and these are known as the parathyroid glands. They secrete a hormone called parathormone which regulates calcium balance in the blood. Parathormone increases blood calcium levels by causing more absorption of calcium from the digestive tract, increased osteoclast activity in the bones, and reabsorption of calcium from the kidney. The principal or chief cells secrete parathyroid hormone. The oxyphilic cells are less common...
Liver
The liver is the largest internal organ of the body. It is on the right side of the body and plays a major metabolic function in digestion and also in processing material from the blood. The liver has four lobes in humans and is held to the diaphragm by the falciform ligament. The right lobe is the largest of the lobes. The left lobe is also reasonably large. The quadrate lobe is anterior and is rectangular in shape when seen from the inferior view. The caudate lobe is a posterior lobe of the...
Index
arterial circle circle of Willis , 211 articular cartilages, 89 articular disc, 95 articular facet, 55, 57 articular process, 57, 59 articulate artery, 215 articulations, 85-101 arytenoid cartilages, 259 astrocytes, 107 atlas, 55 atom, 5 auditory tube Eustachian tube , 167,169 autonomic nervous system, 103, 149, 151 axillary artery, 207, 213 axillary lymph nodes, 309 axillary nerve, 141 axillary vein, 223, 227 axis, 55 axon hillcock, 105 axons, 37,105,107 azygos veins, 231 basilar membrane, 173...
Hormones Secreted By The Pituitary And Their Target Organs
The adenohypophysis produces and secretes many hormones that have diverse target areas. Growth hormone GH is released by the pituitary and causes growth and division of cells throughout the body. Prolactin is more specific in its function. Prolactin stimulates the mammary glands to become functional in milk production. Follicle stimulating hormone FSH and luteinizing hormone LH are gonadotropins that cause the ovaries and testes to release hormones. Thyroid stimulating hormone TSH causes the...
Small Intestine
The small intestine receives the contents of the stomach, continues the process of digestion and absorbs nutrients. The first part of the small intestine is the duodenum, a short tube of about twelve inches in length, that receives material from the stomach, enzymes and buffers from the pancreas, and bile from the gall bladder. The duodenum has circular folds in the wall that increase the surface area. The jejunum is the next section of the small intestine and it makes up about forty percent of...
Cross Section Of Cochlea
Look at the cross section of cochlea. Each coil of the cochlea has three chambers and three membranes. The upper chamber in the illustration is the scala vestibuli. It is connected to the oval window. The vestibular membrane is the tissue that forms the bottom of the scala vestibuli. Below this is the scala media that houses the spiral organ or the organ of Corti . The bottom chamber is the scala tympani. Between the scala tympani and the scala media is the basilar membrane. Label these...
medical Dph
The tibiofemoral joint is special in humans because it is the largest joint in the body and because it is particularly vulnerable to injury. The joint is stabilized by the patellar tendon, the medial and lateral collateral ligaments, the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments and the medial and lateral menisci. Label the structures in the anterior view, with the patella in place and with it reflected, and color them in. c. Fibular collateral ligament, d. Patellar tendon, e. Tibial collateral...
Specific Synovial Joints
Synovial joints are classified by what kind of motion they have. Gliding joints move in one plane like two sheets of glass sliding across one another. Hinge joints have angular movement like a door hinge. Rotating pivot joints move like a wheel of a car around an axle. Condyloid ellipsoidal joints move like hinges in two directions. In these joints there is a convex surface and a concave surface. Saddle joints have two concave surfaces. They allow for greater movement than condyloid joints....
Vessels Overview
The blood vessels have different thickness due to the differences in pressure that occur in them or their function with respect to exchanging nutrients with the cells. Arteries have thick walls due to the higher pressure found in them. Just as high pressure hoses have thick walls so do arteries. The outer layer of the artery is the tunica externa tunica adventitia . You should locate the tunica externa and color it in. The middle layer of the artery, the tunica media is the thickest layer and...
Posterior Surface Of Heart
On the posterior side of the heart are additional arteries and veins. The posterior interventricular artery occurs between the ventricles on the posterior surface. It receives blood from the right coronary artery. The middle cardiac vein runs the opposite direction and takes blood into the coronary sinus. The small cardiac vein is also found on the posterior surface of the heart and enters the coronary sinus from the opposite direction. Label the posterior features of the heart and color the...
Chapter Twelve Urinary
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. The right kidney is a little more inferior than the left kidney due to the presence of the liver on the right side of the body. The kidneys are located near the twelfth vertebra and extend to the third lumbar vertebra. They receive blood from the renal artery. The kidneys are retroperitoneal, meaning that they are posterior to the parietal peritoneum. The ureters are also retroperitoneal and take urine to...
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is just inferior to the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. It has two main lobes and a small connection between them called the isthmus. The histology of the thyroid is very distinctive. There are cells called follicular cells forming a sphere and these make up the follicle. Inside the follicle is the colloid where thyroid hormones are stored. The parafollicular cells are between the follicles. Label the main parts of the thyroid gland, the follicular cells, the parafollicular...
medical 37
Muscular tissue is composed of specialized cells involved in contraction. Skeletal muscle makes up body muscles and represents around 40 percent of the body mass. Skeletal muscle is striated and the fusion of individual cells produces longer, mature cells that are multinucleate. These nuclei are found on the edges of the cells. Skeletal muscle can be consciously controlled and is called voluntary muscle. Label and color the striations of the skeletal muscle cells, the nuclei, and individual...
Labyrinths Of The Inner Ear
The outer part of the inner ear consists of the bony labyrinth, an outer encasement of bone. Inside of this is a fluid called perilymph. Inside of this is the membranous labyrinth. It is filled with a fluid called endolymph. Label these structures and fluids. Cross Section of a Semicircular Canal Look at the cross section of a semicircular duct. The outer part of the canal is the bony labyrinth. Perilymph is the fluid between the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth. Inside the...
Lacteals
The lymph system has a special function in digestion. Not only are there lymph nodes along parts of the digestive tract that protect the body from possible invasion from ingested microbes, but fatty acids from digestion are absorbed by special vessels called lacteals. Lacteals are found in the small intestine in finger-like structures called villi. These villi also contain capillaries which absorb sugars and amino acids. The lacteals absorb the fatty acids, products from the digestion of lipids...
Overview Of Ear
The ear consists of three major regions, the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists mainly of two parts, the auricle pinna , including the ear lobe and the external auditory canal. The middle ear begins at the tympanic membrane ear drum . Inside the tympanic membrane is the tympanic cavity, another part of the middle ear. Here you should label the ear ossicles and the auditory tube Eustachian tube . The inner ear consists of three major regions, the cochlea, the...
Plexuses And Thoracic Nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves grouped by region of the vertebral column. The cervical nerves are the most superior and there are eight pairs of them. The first cervical nerves arise superior to the first cervical vertebra. The thoracic nerves arise as twelve pairs. They lead to nerves that innervate the muscles between the ribs and associated skin. There are five pairs of lumbar nerves and five pairs of sacral nerves. The last pair of spinal nerves is the coccygeal nerves. A plexus is a...
Turns The Eye Inferiorly
The lateral and superior views of the eye show the major muscles controlling the eye. The lateral rectus is the muscle that lets you see towards the side. The medial rectus turns the eye toward the midline. The superior rectus makes you look up while the inferior rectus makes you look down. The superior oblique turns the eye inferiorly and laterally while the inferior oblique makes the eye turn superiorly and laterally. The levator palpebrae superioris elevates the eyelid. Label and color the...
Organs Of The Head
The pineal gland is a small gland located posterior to the corpus callosum in the brain. It has the shape of a pine nut but is a little bit smaller. It secretes the hormone melatonin melatonin levels increase during the night and decrease during the day. is suspended from the brain by a stalk called the infundibulum. The pituitary sits in the hypophyseal fossa which is a depression in the sphenoid bone. The pituitary is a complicated gland that has numerous functions. The adenohypophysis or...
Tongue
The tongue is the region where taste is perceived. The tongue has regions that are sensitive to different tastes and these vary from person to person. Not only do people taste material in different places on the tongue, but the sensitivity to taste is different in individuals. Taste buds are located on the sides of papillae of the tongue. The lingual tonsils are found on the posterior tongue and the palatine tonsils are on the sides of the oral cavity. Posterior and inferior to the tongue is...
Organs Of The Male Reproductive System
The testes are enclosed in the scrotal sac which is lined with a smooth muscle layer called the dartos muscle. This muscle contracts when the temperatures drop near the testes, causing them to withdraw closer to the body where it is warmer. Another muscle of the region is the cremaster muscle. It also contracts when it is cold but it is made of skeletal muscle. The epididymis sits on top of the testis like a small cap and is a place where sperm cells mature. The spermatic cord consists of the...
Overview Of The Cardiovascular System
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart as a pump, blood vessels that take blood away from the heart arteries , and blood vessels that take blood back to the heart veins . Locate the heart on the illustration and color it in purple. Label the common carotid artery and color it in red. Arteries are typically colored in red and veins are colored blue. Label and color in the internal jugular vein too. The internal jugular vein takes blood to the superior vena cava which takes blood to the...
Artery Overview
One of the ways to study arteries is to draw them as if you were making a street map. Begin with the heart and draw the blood vessels that occur as you take blood to the fingers, toes or to a particular organ of the body. Arteries are typically colored red and you should select that color for this illustration. Use the following artery list and label the appropriate arteries and color them in red. The abbreviation for artery is a. Ascending aorta Aortic arch Thoracic aorta Abdominal aorta...
Modified Synovial Structuresbursae And Tendon Sheaths
There are structures in the body that consist of synovial membranes and fibrous capsules. These are not synovial joints but are associated with joints. A bursa is one such structure. It is a fluid-filled sac with an internal synovial membrane that cushions tendons as they pass over bones. The bursa occurs between the tendon and the bone. Another structure is a tendon sheath. It also is composed of a synovial membrane and fibrous sheath and it encloses tendons. The sheaths can provide...
Urinary Bladder
The urinary bladder is a storage organ for holding urine. The ureters enter the bladder at the ureteral orifices and the urethra exits the bladder inferiorly. These three openings make a triangular region known as the trigone at the posterior wall of the bladder. The urethra is the external tube that takes urine voided from the urinary bladder to outside the body. The urethra in the female is much shorter than in the male, which makes females more susceptible to bladder infections. The wall of...
Superior Aspect Of The Heart
This view of the heart is seen as if the atria and the major vessels have been removed. You should be able to see all of the major valves of the heart. The most anterior valve is the pulmonary semilunar valve that occurs between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk. Label and color this valve blue. Posterior to this is the aortic semilunar valve. It occurs between the left ventricle and the aorta. Label this valve and color it in red. Both of these valves prevent blood from returning to...
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is attached to the brain at the foramen magnum. It expands just below this junction as the cervical enlargement. This enlargement is due to the increased neural connections with the upper extremities. Another increase in the diameter of the cord is the lumbar enlargement and it is due to the neural connections with the lower extremities. The end of the cord is the conus medullaris and this is found at the region of the first or second lumbar vertebra. The shortness of the spinal...
Parasym Pathetic Division
The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions are antagonistic to one another and organs under the influence of the ANS have dual innervation. Typically, one division either inhibits the organ from functioning or causes an increase in activity in the organ. This occurs due to the difference in neurotransmitters secreted by the separate divisions. At the terminal end of the parasympathetic division, the neurotransmitter is acetylcholine. At the terminal end of the sympathetic division, the...
Upper Limb Veins
The veins of the upper limb are somewhat variable and have many cross connections between them but they can be divided into the deep veins and the superficial veins. The deep veins of the upper limb frequently form a meshwork around the arteries venae comitantes which allows for a great amount of heat transfer. Cool blood from the extremities is warmed by the arterial blood flowing in a counter current. Blood in the fingers returns to the forearm by the digital veins and then the superficial...
Pancreas
The pancreas is inferior to the stomach and has several digestive functions. These exocrine secretions are initiated by the acinar cells. The endocrine function of the pancreas consists of the secretion of insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin from the pancreatic islets. These islets are microscopic collections of cells that have specialized cells for the secretion of hormones. Insulin lowers blood glucose levels while glucagon does the reverse. Somatostatin moderates some of the pancreatic cells...
TEM POROMAN Dl BU LAR JOINT
Some joints of the body warrant special attention. The temporomandibular joint or jaw joint is both a gliding joint and a hinge joint. The condyle of the mandible articulates with the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone. An articular disc is found in the joint that decreases the stress on the joint. Ligaments dense connective tissue that joins bone to bone connect the mandible to the temporal bone. b. Coronoid process, c. Condyloid j process cut , d. Angle of mandible, 1 J e. Mandibl,. f....
Lateral Wall Of Nasal Cavity And Respiratory Epithelium
When looking at the nasal cavity, if the septal cartilage is removed you can see the nasal conchae. These structures force the inhaled air to come into contact with the wall of the nasal cavity where the air is warmed and moistened. There are three nasal conchae, the superior nasal concha, the middle nasal concha, and the inferior nasal concha. Note the position of the conchae with the nasal bone, the hard palate and the soft palate. Label the nasal cavity and the structures that are associated...
Nerves Of Lumbar Plexus
The lumbar plexus leads to nerves on the anterior and the medial aspect of the thigh. A large femoral nerve arises from the lumbar plexus and innervates the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris group on the anterior thigh. The obturator nerve innervates the adductor muscles of the medial thigh and the genitofemoral nerve is a sensory nerve that receives impulses from the male scrotal sac and the labia majora in females. The iliohypogastric nerve innervates the muscles of the abdomen and the...
Overview Of The Digestive System
The digestive system is composed of a long tube called the alimentary canal and the accessory organs including the liver, pancreas, and gall bladder. The alimentary canal starts at the mouth, includes the esophagus, stomach, intestines, and rectum and terminates at the anus. It can be defined as the tube through which ingested products move. The accessory organs have digestive functions but they do not come into contact with material passing through the digestive tract. The alimentary canal...
Gonads
The ovaries are a mixed gland because they produce the oocytes egg cells and also have an endocrine function by producing estrogens. Estrogens are a class of female sex hormones that include estradiol and progesterone. Estradiol is produced in the granulosa cells of the ovarian follicles. These follicles surround the oocytes. Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum after the oocyte has been ovulated. The testes are also mixed glands. As exocrine glands they produce sperm cells and as...
Head And Aortic Arteries
Blood from the heart exits the brachiocephalic artery and takes two main pathways to the right side of the head. One of these is the right common carotid artery which exits the brachiocephalic artery and then splits into the external carotid artery and the internal carotid artery. The external carotid artery has several branches, among them the facial artery, the superficial temporal artery, the maxillary artery, and the occipital artery. The internal carotid artery takes blood through the...
Larynx Trachea And Lungs Overview
Two main cartilages of the larynx can be seen from an anterior view. The thyroid cartilage is superior to the cricoid cartilage. Below the larynx is the trachea which divides into the right and left primary bronchi. The right primary bronchus leads to the right lung and the left primary bronchus leads to the left lung. Label the parts of the respiratory system illustrated. Color the two visible cartilages of the larynx different colors and the trachea another color. Color the bronchi in first...
Esophagus
Food moves from the oral cavity to the oropharynx by action of the tongue. The uvula flips upward keeping the food from entering the nasal cavity. Food passes from the oropharynx into the laryngopharynx before moving to the esophagus. The food enters the esophagus as a lump or bolus and passes through the esophageal sphincter to the stomach. Once it enters the stomach the bolus mixes with stomach fluid and becomes a liquid called chyme. Label and color the structures leading to the esophagus...
Circulation
The heart has four chambers including the superior atria and the inferior ventricles. There is a typical coloring pattern for the cardiovascular system. Vessels or chambers that carry deoxygenated blood are colored in blue while vessels that carry oxygenated blood are colored red. Label and color the right atrium blue , right ventricle blue , left atrium red and left ventricle red . Remember the heart is in anatomical position so the right atrium is on the left in the illustration. There are...
Two Types Of Immunity
The body can control against foreign particles either by cell-mediated immunity or antibody mediated immunity. In antibody mediated immunity, foreign particles called antigens typically proteins or carbohydrates on the surface of invading cells stimulate B cells to become plasma cells and memory B cells. The plasma cells produce antibodies and these react with the antigens stimulating their destruction. In cell-mediated immunity, the reacting cells are called helper T cells and they cause the...
Introduction
Muscles can be grouped into anatomical regions such as muscles of the head, arm or torso. Muscles can also be functionally related, for example, muscles that act on the thigh or muscles that flex the hand. The origin of the muscle is the stable part of the muscle. The majority of muscles have origins that are superior, proximal, or medial to the insertion. There are only a few exceptions to this rule. The insertion of the muscle is the part of the muscle that has the greatest motion when the...
Frontal Lobe Sulci Gyri
From the superior aspect, the two cerebral hemispheres are divided by the longitudinal fissure. The frontal lobes are separated from the parietal lobe by the central sulcus. The precentral gyrus primary motor cortex and the postcentral gyrus primary somatosensory cortex are on either side of the central sulcus. The gyri are the raised areas of the cerebral cortex and the sulci are the shallow depressions of the cerebral cortex. Together, these compose the convolutions of the brain. Label and...
Ventricles
The brain has hollow cavities enclosed in nervous tissue called ventricles. Each cerebral hemisphere has a lateral ventricle and these lead into a central third ventricle via the interventricular foramina. Cerebrospinal fluid CSF is produced from blood capillaries called choroid plexuses in the ventricles and this fluid flows slowly through the ventricles. There are choroid plexuses in all of the ventricles of the brain. The CSF from the lateral ventricles flows into the third ventricle. From...
Crista Galli Skull
Several features of the skull can be seen when it is sectioned in the midsagittal plane. Locate the major bones of the skull and the features seen in this section. The nasal septum consists of two bony structures, the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer. The crista galli extends superiorly from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. The junction of the maxilla and the palatine bone that make up the hard palate can be seen from this view as well. The frontal sinus and the...